The Great Language Games

Map of northern Persia and northern Afghanistan in 1857 showing, and that form modern and\' The Great Game\' was a political and diplomatic confrontation that existed for most of the 19th century between the and the over and neighbouring territories in. Russia was fearful of British commercial and military inroads into Central Asia, and Britain was fearful of Russia adding \'the jewel in the crown\', India, to the vast empire that Russia was building in Asia.

This resulted in an atmosphere of distrust and the constant threat of war between the two empires. Britain made it a high priority to protect all the approaches to India, and the \'great game\' is primarily how the British did this. Historians with access to the archives have concluded that Russia had no plans involving India, as the Russians repeatedly stated.The Great Game began on 12 January 1830 when, the President of the Board of Control for India, tasked, the, to establish a new trade route to the. Britain intended to gain control over the and make it a protectorate, and to use the, the, the, and the Emirate of Bukhara as buffer states between both empires. This would protect India and also key British sea trade routes by stopping Russia from gaining a port on the or the. Russia proposed Afghanistan as the neutral zone. The results included the failed of 1838, the of 1845, the of 1848, the of 1878, and the annexation of by Russia.Historians consider the end of the Great Game to be the 10 September 1895 signing of the Boundary Commission protocols, when the border between Afghanistan and the Russian empire was defined.: p14 The 1901 novel by made the term popular and introduced the new implication of great power rivalry.

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It became even more popular after the 1979 advent of the. Silk and spice festival in modern-day Bukhara, UzbekistanThe term \'the Great Game\' was used well before the 19th century and was associated with games of risk, such as cards and dice. The French equivalent Le grand jeu dates back to at least 1585 and is associated with meanings of risk, chance and deception.In the historical sense the term dated from the mid-19th century. \'The Great Game\' is attributed to Captain (1807–42) who had been appointed as a political officer. In July 1840, in correspondence to Major who had been recently appointed as the new political agent in, Conolly wrote, \'You\'ve a great game, a noble game, before you.\'

Conolly believed that Rawlinson\'s new post gave him the opportunity to advance humanitarianism in Afghanistan, and summed up his hopes:If the British Government would only play the grand game — help Russia cordially to all that she has a right to expect — shake hands with Persia — get her all possible amends from — force the Bukhara Amir to be just to us, the Afghans, and other Oosbeg states, and his own kingdom — but why go on; you know my, at any rate in one sense, enlarged views. The expediency, nay the necessity of them will be seen, and we shall play the noble part that the first Christian nation of the world ought to fill.It was introduced into mainstream by the British novelist in his novel (1901). It was first used academically by Professor H.W.C. Davis in a presentation titled The Great Game in Asia (1800-1844) on 10 November 1926. The use of the term \'The Great Game\' to describe Anglo-Russian rivalry in Central Asia became common only after the.India invasion fears. 1909 Map of the British Indian Empire, showing British India in two shades of pink and the princely states in yellowAt the start of the 19th century, the was ruled in part by independent and in part by the of the British. During the 19th century a political and diplomatic confrontation developed between Britain and Russia over Afghanistan which later became known as \'The Great Game\'.

Russia was fearful of British commercial and military inroads into, and Britain was fearful of Russia adding the \'jewel in the crown\', India, to the vast empire that Russia was building in Asia. This resulted in an atmosphere of distrust and the constant threat of war between the two empires. If Russia were to gain control of the, it might then be used as a staging post for a Russian invasion of India.had proposed a joint Franco-Russian invasion of India to his Imperial Majesty.

In 1801 Paul, fearing a future action by the British against Russia and her allies in Europe, decided to make the first move towards where he believed the British Empire was weakest. He wrote to the Ataman of the Troops, Cavalry General, directing him to march to, conquer the Central Asian Khanates, and from there invade India. Paul was assassinated in the same year and the invasion was terminated. Napoleon tried to persuade Paul\'s son, Tsar, to invade India; however Alexander resisted. In 1807, Napoleon dispatched General on a French military mission to Persia, with the intention of persuading Russia to invade India. In response, Britain sent its own diplomatic missions in 1808, with military advisers, to Persia and Afghanistan under the capable, averting the French and possible Russian threat. However, Britain was left with concerns about being able to defend India.In 1810, Lieutenant and Captain undertook an expedition from to (Central Persia) disguised as Muslims.

The expedition was funded by the East India Company and was to map and research the regions of \'Beloochistan\' (Balochistan) and Persia because of concerns about India\'s being invaded by French forces from that direction. After the disastrous in 1812 and the collapse of the French army, the threat of a French invasion through Persia was removed.Beginnings Britain\'s view.

Map of the Indus river basin today. Britain\'s intended strategy was to use its steam power and the river as a trade route into Central Asia.The Great Game is said to have begun on 12 January 1830 when, the president of the Board of Control for India tasked, the, to establish a new trade route to Bukhara.Following the 1828 and the, Britain feared that and Turkey would become protectorates of Russia. This would change Britain\'s perception of the world, and its response was The Great Game.

Britain had no intention of getting involved in the Middle East, but it did envision a series of buffer states between the British and Russian Empires that included Turkey, Persia, plus the and the that would grow from future trade. Behind these buffer states would be their protected states stretching from the Persian Gulf to India and up into the, with British sea-power protecting trade sea-lanes. Access to Afghanistan was to be through developing trade routes along the Indus and rivers using steam-powered boats, and therefore access through the and regions would be required. Persia would have to give up its claim on in Afghanistan. Afghanistan would need to be transformed from a group of warring principalities into one state ruled by an ally whose foreign relations would be conducted on his behalf by the Governor-General and the Foreign Office.

The Great Game meant closer ties between Britain and the states along her northwest frontier.Britain believed that it was the world\'s first free society and the most industrially advanced country, and therefore that it had a duty to use its iron, steam power, and cotton goods to take over Central Asia and develop it. British goods were to be followed by British values and the respect for private property. With pay for work and security in place, nomads would settle and become tribal herdsman surrounding oasis cities. These were to develop into modern states with agreed borders, as in the European model. Therefore, lines needed to be agreed and drawn on maps. Morgan says that two proud and expanding empires approached each other, without any agreed frontier, from opposite directions over a \'backward, uncivilized and undeveloped region.\' Here we are, just as we were, snarling at each other, hating each other, but neither wishing for war.

(1835) Russia\'s view For more details on this topic. Siberian Cossack of the Russian army c1890sIn 1557, and sent ambassadors to seeking permission to trade in Russia. Russia had an interest in establishing a trade route from Moscow to India. From then until the mid-19th century, Russian ambassadors to the region spent much of their time trying to free Russians who had been taken as slaves by the khanates. Russia would later expand across Siberia to the Far East, where it reached the Pacific port that would become known as Vladivostok by 1859. This eastward expansion was of no concern to the British Foreign Office because this area did not lie across any British trade routes or destinations, and therefore was of no interest to Britain. Beginning in the 1820s, Russian troops would begin to advance southward from Siberia in search of secure boundaries and reliable neighbors.

This advance would not cease until Russia’s frontiers and her sphere of influence were firm in the Central Asia, and this would include Bokhara and Khiva.Between 1824–1854, Russia occupied the entire (modern-day Kazakhstan). This raised Russo-Khivan tensions in addition to Khiva’s legal discrimination of Russian merchants who were just beginning to penetrate Central Asia, and the ongoing issue of Russian slaves.

Russia launched an attack in 1839–40 but it failed to reach Khiva because of the tough terrain and weather. However, the khan of Khiva feared a further Russian assault and released a number of Russian slaves.During the 1840s and 1850s, Russia’s aims in Central Asia were for Bukhara and Khiva to refrain from hostile actions against Russia, cease possession of Russian slaves and the granting of asylum to Kazakhs fleeing from Russian justice. Khiva must cease her attacks on caravans along the. Russian merchants must be allowed to trade on the same terms as native merchants in Bukhara and Khiva. The khanates must guarantee the safety of the persons and property of Russian merchants, levy no excessive duties, permit unhampered transit of goods and caravans across Central Asia into neighboring states and allow Russian commercial agents to reside in Bukhara and Khiva, and free navigation on the river for Russian ships. None of these aims was realised. Russia\'s borders remained insecure and in addition there was growing British influence in the region.In 1869, when proposed the Amu Darya river as the basis for a neutral zone between British and Russian spheres of influence, proposed Afghanistan as the neutral zone.

Russia feared the influence that a Muslim power with British support might have on the other khanates in the region. Anglo–Russian rivalry in Central Asia Under the East India Company Early explorations and accounts.

Afghan tribesmen (in British service) in 1841In 1782, a civil servant of the East India Company, undertook a journey that began in, Bengal and passed through, crossed the by ship, and then travelled to, and then by ship to. His detailed description of the journey was published in 1798.was an explorer, doctor, veterinary surgeon, and Superintendent of the East India Company\'s horse stud. He had an interest in expanding trade in Central Asia, where he thought the Russian traders were already active. In 1820, Moorcroft, George Trebeck and George Guthrie left India for to buy and reached Bukhara in 1825. However, all three died of fever on the return journey.

His travels were published in 1841., formerly of the East India Company, resided in, Afghanistan and the Punjab between 1826 and 1838 and published his travels. In September 1829, Lieutenant of the East India Company travelled from St. Petersburg, Russia to the Caspian desert, to Kir (northern Iran), was detained in (northern Iran) as a Russian spy, then travelled with a caravan of pilgrims to, marched with the Afghan army from there to Herat, then traveled to Kandahar, to Quetta, then across the to the British frontier in January 1831. He published his travels in 1834. However, after 1830, Britain\'s commercial and diplomatic interest to the north-west would eventually become formidable. In 1831, Captain and Colonel \'s surveys of the Indus river would prepare the way for a future assault on the Sind to clear a path towards Central Asia. Burnes embarked on a dangerous 12-month journey beginning in 1831 into Afghanistan and through the to Bukhara, returning in 1832.

Burnes, a Christian travelling through a Muslim country was one of the first to study Afghanistan for British Intelligence and upon his return, he published his book, Travels To Bukhara, which became an overnight success in 1834. Between 1832 and 1834, Britain attempted to negotiate trade agreements with, ruler of the, and the Amirs of. However, these attempts were unsuccessful. Afghanistan and central Asia In 1835, was appointed Governor-General, and replaced Bentinck who had pursued a non-intervention policy. Political cartoon depicting the Afghan with his \'friends\' the and (1878)In 1838, Colonel of the East India Company arrived in the to arrange an alliance with. Nasrullah Khan had Stoddart imprisoned in a vermin-infested dungeon because he had not bowed nor brought gifts. In 1841, Captain arrived to try to secure Stoddart’s release.

He was also imprisoned and on 17 June 1842 both men were beheaded. On hearing of the execution of the two British officers, Emperor would no longer receive Bukhara\'s gifts or emissaries, and its ambassador was turned back at with a message that the Emperor would no longer have anything to do with the Emir of Bukhara. After its two representatives were executed in Bukhara, Britain actively discouraged officers from traveling in Turkestan.During 1838, there were rumors in London of a coming Russian move towards Khiva. Additionally, Persia intended to annex Herat to make up for territory it had lost in the, however the allegiance of Herat to Afghanistan was crucial to the British strategy. The began in November 1837 when the new Shah of Persia, Mohammed Mirza, arrived before Herat. His intention was to take Herat then move on to Kandahar. With him was the Russian Envoy Count Simonich, seconded Russian officers and a regiment of Russian deserters under the Polish general Berowski., an officer of the Bengal Artillery, who had earlier entered Herat in disguise, stiffened the defences and despite the presence of Russian advisers the siege lasted eight months.

Britain threatened to take military action and Persia withdrew in September.In October 1838 Auckland issued the Simla Manifesto, a piece of propaganda designed to blacken the reputation of and which claimed that Dost Mohammad:openly threatened.to call in every foreign aid that he could command.we could never hope that the tranquility of our neighborhood could be secured.the Governor-General confidently hopes that the Shah will speedily be replaced on his throne.the independence and integrity of Afghanistan restored, the British army will be withdrawn. First Anglo-Afghan War. Further information:British influence was to be extended into Afghanistan and it was to become a buffer state. The intention to invade was clear, and when a copy of the Manifesto reached London there was no objection.In December, the British marched into Afghanistan and arrested Dost Mohammad, sent him into exile in India and replaced him with the previous ruler, who shared their more progressive vision for the people of the region. Shah Shuja ul-Mulk had ascended the throne in 1803 and had signed a mutual defence agreement with the British in 1809 against a possible Franco-Russian invasion of India via Afghanistan.

In the same year he was deposed and imprisoned by his half-brother. There were a number of Amirs of Afghanistan until Dost Mohammad Khan gained power in 1836. Shah Shuja was not popular with the Afghans and tensions grew, leading to the killing of the British envoy, Captain Alexander Burnes, in 1841. By January 1842, the Afghans were in full revolt.

With a weakening of military discipline, the British decided to. The Kabul garrison of 4,500 troops and 12,000 camp followers left Kabul for Jalalabad that was 80 miles and 5 days march away. They were attacked by 30,000 Afghans.

Six British officers escaped on horseback but only one, the wounded Dr riding on a wounded horse, made it to Jalalabad. Over one hundred of the British and 2,000 sepoys and camp followers were taken hostage and the rest killed. So perished the \'Army of the Indus\'. In April, a punitive expedition was dispatched and recaptured Kabul and freed the captives in September. The new Governor-General, decided to withdraw all British garrisons from Afghanistan and Dost Mohammad Khan was freed in India to return to the throne.

Dost Mohammad is reported to have said:I have been struck by the magnitude of your resources, your ships, your arsenals, but what I cannot understand is why the rulers of so vast and flourishing an empire should have gone across the Indus to deprive me of my poor and barren country. Mission to Khiva In 1839, acting Captain of the Bengal Artillery undertook a mission to the Khanate of Khiva in an attempt to negotiate the release of Russian slaves that would deny the Russians a pretext for invading Khiva. If war had already broken out, Abbot was instructed to attempt to negotiate a settlement. The attempted Russian assault on Khiva may have been in response to Britain\'s \'forward policy\' on Afghanistan, however it failed to reach Khiva due to the severe winter conditions. Of the 5,000 men who had left Orenburg, only 4,000 returned. Abbott was hampered by a lack of understanding of Khivan language and culture, and the attempt to release Russian slaves was unsuccessful.

He did agree with the Khivan ruler, Allah Quli Khan, to establishing a British agent to Khiva and to mediate between Khiva and Russia. Abbott set off from Khiva in 1840 towards Russia to commence negotiations, which he did on his own initiative and it was not authorised by his superiors. His caravan was attacked by Khazakhs and he was wounded in the hand and taken hostage, however he and his party were released because they feared retribution. He reached Saint Petersburg but the attempt at mediation failed.

His bravery was recognized through promotion to full Captain. In the same year, Lieutenant of the Bengal Artillery was successful in negotiating the release of 416 Russian captives, whom he escorted into Russia.

He was knighted for this undertaking. Anglo-Sikh Wars. Further information:In 1856, Persia commenced an assault on Herat and the British Home Government declared war on Persia. The Anglo-Persian War was conducted under Major General Sir until 1857, when Persia and Britain both withdrew and Persia signed a treaty renouncing its claim on Herat. Under the British Crown Following the, the East India Company\'s remaining powers were transferred to the British in the person of (who in 1876 was proclaimed ). As a state, the functioned as the guardian of a system of connected markets maintained by military power, business legislation and monetary management. The saw the of the British government assume the administration of through a appointed by the Crown.In 1863 of Herat, who was placed into power by Persia and issued coinage on behalf of the Shah, attacked the disputed town of.

Farrah had been under Dost Mohammad Khan\'s control since 1856, and he responded by sending his army to defeat Herat and reunited it with Afghanistan.The had ended in 1856 with Russia\'s defeat by an alliance of Britain, France, and the Ottoman Empire. The new and wary waited some years so as not to antagonize the British, then Russia expanded into Central Asia in two campaigns.

In 1864, a circular was sent to the consular officers abroad by Gorchakov, the Russian Chancellor, patiently explaining the reasons for expansion centering on the doctrines of necessity, power and spread of civilisation. Gorchakov went to great lengths to explain that Russia\'s intentions were meant not to antagonize the British but to bring civilised behavior and protect the traditional trade routes through the region. The first campaign started from and proceeded in the direction of Kabul in Afghanistan. Russia occupied Chimkent in 1864, Tashkent in 1865, Khokhand and Bukhara in 1866, and Samarkand in 1868. Russia\'s influence now extended to outlying regions of Afghan Turkestan. The second campaign started from the Caspian Sea and was in the direction of Herat, near the Persian frontier.

Khiva was occupied in 1873. Notable Russian generals included, and.From 1869 to 1872, Mir Mahmud Shar was able to gain control of the Khanate of with the help of Afghanistan\'s new ruler, Amir, and by 1873 Afghanistan governed Badakhshan.

Anglo-Russian agreements Agreement Between Great Britain and Russia 1873. Further information:On 21 January 1873, Great Britain and Russia signed an agreement that stipulated that the eastern Badakhshan area as well as the Wakhan Corridor to Lake Sari-Qul were Afghan territory, the northern Afghan boundary was the Amu Darya as far west as Khwaja Salar, and a joint Russian-British commission would define the boundary from the Amu Darya to the Persian border on the Harirud. However, no boundary west of the Amu Darya was defined until 1885. The agreement was regarded as having defined the British and Russian spheres of influence in Afghanistan and Central Asia, gave the two sides the legitimacy to advance within their designated zones, created cordial relations between the two rival European powers, and raised the new problem of defining what were the frontiers of Afghanistan, Russia and China in the upper Oxus region in the Pamir mountains.

The agreement was negotiated by Prince, the lands of Badakhshan and Wakhan were accepted by Russia as part of Afghanistan, Russia accepted all of Britain\'s proposals on Afghanistan\'s northern borders and expected that Britain would keep Afghanistan from committing any aggression. However, this set in motion Russia\'s annexation of the Khanate of Khiva in the same year. Badakhshan would later be divided between Afghanistan and Russian-controlled Bukhara by the Pamir Boundary Commission in 1895.

Elephant and Mule Battery, Second Anglo-Afghan WarIn 1878, Russia sent an uninvited diplomatic mission to Kabul., the, tried unsuccessfully to keep them from entering Afghanistan. The Russian envoys arrived in Kabul on 22 July 1878 and on 14 August the British demanded that Sher Ali also accept a British mission. The Amir not only refused to receive a British mission under but also threatened to stop it if it attempted to enter his country., the Viceroy of British India, ordered a diplomatic mission to set out for Kabul in September 1878 but the mission was turned back as it approached the eastern entrance of the, triggering the Second Anglo–Afghan War.The of 1879 required that Amir had to accept British control of Afghanistan\'s foreign relations and to cede to the British a number of its southern frontier areas, including the districts of Pishin, Sibi, Harnai, and Thal Chotiali. In the following years, other tribal areas would be annexed by the British.In 1881, Russian forces took and in 1884 they occupied. As the Russian forces were close to Herat, the British and Russian governments formed a joint Anglo-Russian in the same year to define the borders between the Russian Empire and northern Afghanistan.In 1885, a Russian force annexed the Panjdeh district north of Herat province and its fort in what has been called the. The Afghans claimed that the people of the district had always paid tribute to Afghanistan, and the Russians argued that this district was part of the Khanates of Khiva and Merv which they had annexed earlier. The was supposed to have settled the dispute, however the battle occurred before its arrival.

The Afghan force of 500 was completely overwhelmed by the superior Russian numbers. Britain did not aid Afghanistan as was required by the Treaty of Gandamak, leading the Amir to believe that he could not rely on the British in the face of Russian aggression.German Chancellor saw how important the Great Game had become for Russia and Britain. Germany had no direct stakes, however its dominance of Europe was enhanced when Russian troops were based as far away from Germany as possible.

Over two decades, 1871-1890, he maneuvered to help the British, hoping to force the Russians to commit more soldiers to Asia. Protocol Between Great Britain and Russia 1885.

Panjdeh Incident (overlaid on a map of modern-day Turkmenistan)= Hari-Rud river=Murghab riverOn 10 September 1885 the Delimitation Protocol Between Great Britain and Russia was signed in London. The protocol defined the boundary from the Oxus to the Harirud and was later followed by 19 additional protocols providing further detail between 1885-88. The Afghan Boundary Commission agreed that Russia would relinquish the farthest territory captured in their advance, but retain Panjdeh. The agreement delineated a permanent northern Afghan frontier at the Amu Darya, with the loss of a large amount of territory, especially around Panjdeh.This left the border east of Lake in the region to be defined. This territory was claimed by, Russia and Afghanistan. In the 1880s, the Afghans had advanced north of the lake to the Pamir.: p13 In 1891, Russia sent a military force to this area and its commander, Yanov, ordered the British Captain to leave in the.

The Russians claimed that because they had annexed the they had a claim over the Pamirs. Afghanistan claimed that the region never paid tribute to Kokand and was independent, so having annexed it the region was theirs.

The British claimed that this was a breach of the Anglo-Russian Agreement of 1873. Unfortunately for Britain, the Indian government pointed out that Bozai Gumbaz was not included in the Agreement and so it was in an undefined zone. Bozai Gumbaz had not appeared on the Russian map as being in Wakhan. Additionally, the British became aware that Younghusband had mistakenly entered Russian territory near and could have been arrested by the administrator there.

Yanov offered a verbal apology if he had mistakenly entered the Wakhan territory, and the Russian government proposed a joint survey to agree on a border. In 1892, the British sent to the Pamirs to investigate. Britain was concerned that Russia would take advantage of Chinese weakness in policing the area to gain territory.: p14 Murray was engaged in some form of diplomacy or espionage but the matter is not clear, and in 1893 reached agreement with Russia to demarcate the rest of the border, a process completed in 1895.: p14 Agreement Between Great Britain and Afghanistan 1893. Further information:On 12 November 1893 the Agreement Between Great Britain and Afghanistan was signed in Kabul. The Agreement reconfirmed the 1873 Agreement, required Afghanistan to withdraw from the territory north of the Amu Darya that it had occupied in 1884, and called for delimitation of the boundary east of Lake Sari.When, Secretary for State of India was appointed administrator of the (now part of the of ), he opened up the region by building roads, telegraph, and mail systems while maintaining a dialogue with the Mir of Gilgit. He intended to improve the road from Kashmir through the of and and up to the frontier with Russia. The Mirs of Nagar and Hunza saw this as a threat to their natural advantage of remoteness.

In 1890, Durand reinforced Chalt Fort that was near the border due to the rumor that Nagar and Hunza fighters were about to attack it, and continued redeveloping the road up to the fort. In May 1891, Nagar and Hunza sent a warning to Durand not to continue work on the road to the fort and to vacate the fort, which was on the Gilgit side of the border, else they would regard it as an act of war. Durand reinforced the fort and accelerated the road construction to it, causing Nagar and Hunza to see this as an escalation and so they stopped mail from the British Resident in Chinese Turkmenistan through their territory. British India regarded this as a breach of their 1889 agreement with Hunza, and after an ultimatum was issued and ignored they initiated the Anglo- Campaign of 1891. Hunza and Nagar came under a British protectorate in 1893.

Exchange of Notes Between Great Britain and Russia 1895. A of, Pamirs, by British Army officer (1874).On 11 March 1895 there was an Exchange of Notes Between Great Britain and Russia. The notes defined British and Russian spheres of influence east of Lake Sari-Qul by defining the northern boundary of the Wakhan Corridor east of the lake.

This boundary was subsequently demarcated by a mixed commission. The Great Game is proposed to have ended on 10 September 1895 with the signing of the Boundary Commission protocols, when the border between Afghanistan and the Russian empire was defined.: p14 The Pamir Boundary Commission was conducted by Major-General Gerard who met with a Russian deputation under General Povalo-Shveikovsky in the remote Pamir region in 1895, who were charged with demarcating the boundary between Russian and British spheres of interest from Lake Victoria eastwards to the Chinese border. The report of the Commission proved the absolute impracticality of any Russian invasion of India through the Pamir mountains. The result was that Afghanistan became a buffer state between the two powers.It was agreed that the river would form the border between Afghanistan and the Russian empire. The agreements also resulted in the Russian Empire losing control of most Afghan territory it conquered, with the exception of. The were demarcated as a border line between the Russian Empire and Afghanistan as well. The would be the subject of a later Afghan-China agreement.

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To conclude their agreement, one peak was named Mount Concord. In exchange for a British agreement to use the term in honor of the Emperor on official maps, the Russians agreed to refer to as Lake Victoria in honor of of England.The Russians had gained all of the lands North of the Amu Darya which included the land claimed by the Khanate of Khiva, including the approaches to Herat, and all of the land claimed by the Khanate of Khoqand, including the Pamir plateau. To ensure a complete separation, this new Afghan state was given an odd eastern appendage known as the. \'In setting these boundaries, the final act of the tense game played out by the British and Russian governments came to a close.\' Historiographical dating Historians do not agree on dating the beginning or end of the Great Game.

One author believes that the Great Game commenced with Russia\'s victory in the and the signing of the of 1813 or the of 1828. Another believes that it began between 1832–34 as an attempt to negotiate trade deals with Ranjit Singh and the Amirs of Sind. Views \'unofficial\' British support for anti-Russian fighters in the ( c. Becker, Seymour. \'The ‘great game’: The history of an evocative phrase.\'

Asian Affairs 43.1 (2012): 61-80. Becker, Seymour (2005), (PDF), RoutledgeCurzon, London, archived from (PDF) on 10 October 2016, retrieved 18 August 2016. Ewans, Martin (2002), HarperCollins,. Ewans, Martin (2004), RoutledgeCurzon, Oxon. UK,. Ewans, Martin (2012), RoutledgeCurzon, Oxon. UK,.

Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV (1908), The Indian Empire, Administrative, Published under the authority of His Majesty\'s Secretary of State for India in Council, Oxford at the Clarendon Press. Xxx, 1 map, 552. Ingram, Edward. Commitment to Empire: Prophecies of the Great Game in Asia, 1797-1800 (1981) 431pp. Ingram, Edward.

Beginning of the Great Game in Asia, 1828-1834 (1979). Ingram, Edward (1980). \'Great Britain\'s Great Game: An Introduction\'. The International History Review. 2 (2): 160–171.

Mahajan, Sneh (2001), (PDF), Routledge, archived from (PDF) on 10 October 2016, retrieved 18 August 2016. Morgan, Gerald (1973), \'Myth and Reality in the Great Game\', Asian Affairs, 4 (1): 55–65,:. Morgan, Gerald (1981), Routledge, London,. Yapp, Malcolm (16 May 2000), (PDF), Proceedings of the British Academy: 2000 Lectures and Memoirs, 111, Oxford University Press, pp. 179–198External links. from 1885.

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